Tears of blood

The drink just lies upon the smooth, flat, varnished table where the suns reflection casts an eerie shadow of the ice, cold drink. If you glance closely, the water condensation slowly, slides, straight down the can leaving a puddle of water behind. To you this may seem like an ordinary alcoholic drink, but for one girl it is her deepest fears come true†¦ â€Å"I'm floating†¦I'm soaring†¦over beautiful fresh, green fields and past busy cities. The wind is carrying me to my dreams on the horizon. The world is spinning below me, such beauty from above. I'm floating†¦ I'm soaring†¦ through the soft, duvet of white clouds. The world, in all its pollution, poverty and corruption, is still beautiful. Which means, I'm beautiful behind my scars and faults and insecurities†¦ yes†¦ I am still beautiful.† She sat on the edge of her blue-patched bed, thinking, â€Å"This is my sanctuary†. For those few moments of silence going through her mind, she felt nothing could destroy this utterly perfect feeling. Nothing, nothing could bring her down from her holy, heights of freedom. â€Å"I am air. I am nobody. I am free.† But, to her sudden horror, † What†¦ I don't understand† She started jerking back to the cold, hostility, of real life. † Good-morning to you all, on this fine Thursday. The suns out and the birds are singing. So why not win a chance of a lifetime†¦ 2 weeks in Italy just ring up†¦0800800958†³ She suddenly remembered her dream, and that word, dream, haunts her. â€Å"It was just a dream, everything is only ever a dream.† She thought as she sighed, and looked around to what her life was. A tiny room, with just about enough space to stand up in, but to her that wasn't important this was her sanctuary. She comes up here everyday and locks herself in her room, crying, trying to run away from all the evil and betrayals, which go on downstairs. After a few moments, she slowly managed to drag herself out of bed and stumble into the bathroom. The lingering embrace of sleep pulled down her eyelids as she looks in the mirror. ‘Another morning, another day gone by' she thought. â€Å"TAMICA!† shrilled a woman in her late forties. â€Å"Yes, mother†¦Ã¢â‚¬  she replied. â€Å"If you don't bloody hurry up you'll be late for school, and don't expect me to be home when the school rings wondering where you are. By the way, it's your responsibility to make sure your so called father does not leave the house drunk with the car keys and make sure all the back doors are locked when you come back from school, I don't want your father making a show of himself, understood?† â€Å"I'll see, depends init†¦' she replied with a since of insecurity. † What on earth to you mean I'll see, you do what ever I say or do not except food in the evening. It is your fault he drinks anyway.† By that time, she had, had enough. Tamika knew if see opened her mouth anymore she just end up crying first thing in the morning. So she hurried downstairs and walked out the house without any breakfast. With her head down throughout the entire journey from home to school, thinking about how possibly it could be her fault her father drinks himself stupid everyday†¦ Time passed by so fast that before and she knew it, it was three o'clock. She slowly walked through the quiet, dark streets dreading what would happen to her when she got home. As she got closer, and closer before she reached the two lion statues outside what seemed to be a peaceful, loving home. It seemed to her that the lions were protectors of her home. They sit outside day in day out protecting the house from predators, except what they do not know is that the predators are already inside waiting for a piece of innocent flesh. She bravely built up the courage to turn the hard, cold key to open the front door. Then, all of a sudden she could hear the taunt of the piano in the background, and fearful greenish liquid took over her body like adrenaline. It started feet first moving slowly and painfully up her spine, sending shivers to her brain. She opened her eyes, to find broken glass and cutlery all over the kitchen floor, and there in the far distance was her father. He was five foot five with white hair with a big beer belly. From the far distance, he looked perfectly normal but as she took a step closer she could see the cold can of beer in his hand and beside him lay a mountain of empty cans. She looked around at mess†¦ â€Å"I can't take it, I have had enough†¦aaaaarrrrrrggg!† She slowly tried walking towards the stairs, trying ever so hard not to be noticed by the predator. She had to be quiet as a mouse, but at the same time as, sly as a fox. She took one giant leap up. She could feel the stairs changing into what seemed to be an escalator and it was going up! She took a looked up only to find she could see soft duvet of velvet clouds covering the suns rays. This leaded to her sanctuary. She took one long, hard glimpse down at the broken home. Inside her dimly lit room she sat numbly listening to the soft sounds coming from her radio. So much emotions and thoughts were playing through Tamikas mind. All the horrible things her mother said about her to her face and behind her back, and just looking at her father like that everyday, tops it up. Her friend's dogs were better parents then they wear. A small crystal clear tear fell down her left cheek. She knew what she had to do to get ride of such pain and emotion. She went to the cupboard, slowly opened the first draw and hidden on top were no one could see was a dull, dirty, dark brown magnet†¦ but it was not the magnet, which would release all the pain, it was underneath the magnet that was so important. A small, shimmering, sharp blade just lay there. How can such a small object cause such pain in the world? Tamica stared, silently at the blade. With no thought to what she was doing the sharp lustrous edge slid, smoothly into her pale skin she watched absent-mindedly as a steady dribble of cherry red blood drawled gradually down the side of her wrist. As she pushed the blade in deeper, the stream of blood quickly intensified. The surge of anguish caused her to cringe. A chorus of words went through her mind†¦ â€Å"Pain, Pain, go away, Let me smile for just one day, Should that day I never see, Let my blood run cold and free† With each new drop, the circle of blood grew proving that she was serious. There were now six cuts her wrists each as deep as each other, and only millimetres apart. Her blood- stained fingers reached for the once shiny, silver blade, which was now covers in dark blood. She contemplated her next move. She pressed with the strongest amount of force she had inside her. This had given her more blood and pain then the others, but the scars were massive and impossible to conceal. After a few minutes the bloody blade broke through her skin slowly and a new thick red line quickly appeared. A wave of relief gushed through her body and escaped through her disfigured wrist. She laid back closed her eyes and enjoyed the feeling of complete relief. All her emotions and thoughts cleared. But nevertheless she knew this sensation would be over in a matter of seconds. She would have trouble walking tomorrow, but Tamica never thought that far ahead. As she gazed down at her disfigured limb, she was revolted, repulsed and ashamed that she could do such a thing. Then as she continued to stare another feeling had surface. The feeling of pride. She swiped the area where the blood was now drying and watched in astonishment as fresh cherry red blood drizzled from her open wounds. A renewed sense of relief consumed her. She had been cutting for so long now that she had lost sight of reality. She no longer controlled the blade, but the blade control her†¦

Middle School Ministry Made Easy: Book Review Essay

Author Information Kurt Johnston has been serving in junior high ministry since 1988. (Simply Youth Ministry n. d. ) Currently, he oversees all of student ministries and is hands on in junior high ministry at Saddleback Church in Lake Forest, CA. (Oestreicher 2011) Kurt also likes encouraging junior high youth workers and has written books and created resources with that goal in mind. (Simply Youth Ministry n. d. ) The growing list of books Kurt has written include such titles as, The 9:Best Practices for Youth Ministry, and 10-Minute Moments: Smart Stuff – Exploring Proverbs 10 Minutes at a  Time. Kurt has partnered with other experts in the field of student ministry like Mark Oestreicher – President of Youth Specialties, (Oestreicher 2011) Scott Rubin -Director of Elevate, the junior high ministry at Willow Creek Community Church, (Simply Youth Ministry n. d. ) and Katie Edwards – Junior High Director at Saddleback Church, (Doug Fields 2011) to produce resources for those in student ministry such as The Middle School Survival Series, Kurt & Scott’s Junior High Adventure, Amigos, 99 Thoughs About Girls: For Guys’ Eyes Only, and 99 Thoughts about Guys: For Girls’ Eyes Only. Kurt’s experience and expertise in student ministry is accessable at all times through a network of websites such as simplyyouthministry. com, youthministry. com, and juniorhighministry. com. Kurt authors a subscription based email newsletter that claims to be, â€Å"Almost daily deas, thoughts, & insights for your youth ministry,† and has proven to be beneficial to my minsitry. Content Summary The main idea of Middle School Ministry Made Simple is stated on the back cover of the 4 book. It says, â€Å"You don’t have to be an expert to minister to middle schoolers. † The pages  Johnston’s book are filled with practices and strategies that could be tremendously useful in a middle school ministry setting. The tools that Johnston shares are based on twenty-three years of ministry experience, and have the personal stories of success and failure to offer authenticity and relevance to their use. Throughout the chapters of Middle School Ministry Made Simple, Johnston address issues that those engaged in middle school ministry are certain to face, like recruiting other adults to invest in the lives of teenagers. He emphasizes seeking out leaders who are not only willing to  serve but who are also a good fit for the ministry. Johnston says, â€Å"Having fewer of the right type of junior high leaders is always better than having more of the wrong type. † (Johnston 2008) Other subjects in Johnston’s book address partnership with parents, middle school ministry programming, leading middle schoolers and volunteers, and the importance of a lasting ministry. Johnston emphasizes ministry programming that focuses on the five purposes of the church: evangelism, worship, fellowship, discipleship, and ministry. (Johnston 2008) He also  highlights targeting the five types of junior high students in your area: community, crowd, congregation, committed, and core. (Johnston 2008) The foundation of â€Å"Purpose Driven† ministry and targeting different types of students is the hope that as students are reached, they might progress from the outside of the fellowship, community students, to the inside of the fellowship, core. Johnson touches on some principles of leadership, and shares that his graduate degree is in the very subject. This may be why he has so much to say, and so much insight to share when it  comes to leading, either as the leader of a ministry or as a volunteer within the ministry. He 5 talks about being the leader as â€Å"leading from the front,† and serving as a volunteer as â€Å"leading from the middle. † In both positions, Johnston emphasizes the importance of leaders nurturing their soul or walking closely with the Father, and gives insight into how to lead from varying levels of responsibility. â€Å"Middle school ministry deserves adults who are committed for the long haul,† says Johnston when it comes to perseverance. (Johnston 2008) He offers insight that emphasizes the  lasting impact of remaining in a position of leadership for a long period of time, and shares expert advice on how to make that happen. His words garner tremendous respect, as he has proven that the principles about which he writes must be true by demonstrating incredible endurance in his own ministry. As a result of his ministry experience, Johnston lists in an alphabetical fashion, twenty-six â€Å"tips and tidbits† that he hopes will be helpful to readers who are involved in middle school ministry. Evaluation One of the things I enjoy most about Middle School Ministry Made Simple, is that while  Johnston may arguably be the authority on middle school ministry, he doesn’t claim to have his field figured out. He even shares in the introduction, despite twenty-three years (twenty years upon the book’s publishing) of middle school experience, â€Å"I am not an expert. † This attitude of humility makes his advice in the chapter concerning leadership, in which he advises leaders to â€Å"pass the praise,† as well as the rest of his knowledge, even more authentic. Johnston’s advice on recruiting volunteers is tremendously insightful. I particularly like  the way he contrasted the stereotype of an effective middle school volunteer with the list of seven key qualities he looks for in a potential ministry volunteer. While the other information in this chapter is helpful, the aforementioned comparison is the most valuable in my estimation. I 6 think people do have a stereotype of what a middle school volunteer should look like or how they should act. Unfortunately many outstanding volunteers are missed because they don’t meet expectations, while others are recruited based on faulty ideals who may not be the best for the students or the ministry team. Johnston’s handling of partnership with parents is not the strength of this book. I felt like he treated the issue as a necessary evil, but not an area of ministry focus. He emphasizes that parents are a part of the equation and so we should be involved with them. However I don’t get the impression that Kurt’s idea of partnership with parents is about strengthening the family as the primary disciple makers of students, as much as it is about leveraging their contributions to one’s ministry. The strength of this book is Johnson’s time proven expertise, and ability to convey his  experience in ministry in a way that is helpful to other middle school ministry workers. I believe that this book should be on the shelf of everyone who serves in middle school ministry, regardless of tenure of ministry. Five new things that I have learned from this work that I will apply in my future strategy are: 1. A key part of empowering others is allowing them to make decisions. 2. Develop accountability to encourage longevity. 3. Not every opportunity is a good opportunity for me. Just say no. Three new things I can do today in the area of personal student development are: 1.Develop a presence on the local school campus. 2. Too many rules can be a hindrance. Focus on respect for others. 3. Develop a system of teaching topics that will guide students through middle school/ Some questions this book raised that I would like to discuss in class are: 1. Once a leader is aware that a volunteer is not going to work out, how does one remove 7 him or her from service without damaging the relationship? 2. What is the balance between strengthening the influence of the home and strengthening the programs of the church through student ministry? 8 Bibliography Doug Fields. Katie Edwards is coming to SLC2011. 2011. http://www. dougfields. com/katie-edwards-is-coming-to-slc2011/ (accessed 10 7, 2011). Johnston, Kurt. Middle School Ministry Made Simple. Cincinatti, OH: Standard Publishing, 2008. Oestreicher, Mark. The Youth Cartel. 8 8, 2011. http://whyismarko. com/2011/kurt-johnston-offers-5-reasons-hes-excited-for-the-middle-school- ministry-campference/ (accessed 10 7, 2011). Simply Youth Ministry. http://www. youthministry. com/user/kurt-johnston (accessed 10 7, 2011). Stier, Greg. Outbreak! Creating a Contagious Youth Ministry Through Viral Evangelism. Chacago, IL: Moody Press, 2002.

Caucasian American Race in My Community

Being a Caucasian American residing in Western Massachusetts I believe that my ancestors were native from the polish and Irish descendants. According to the research I conducted I found that under this population the white people are described as those people with an origin from Europe, Middle East or North Africa, the African –American or the popularly known as the â€Å"Blacks† are said to have originated from any black race of the Sub-Saharan Africa, the American Indians who are also referred to as the Alaska Native are those with an origin from any of the people of the North, Central and South America and are popularly known to be maintaining the affiliation of its tribe. The Asian Americans are the people originating from the Far East, South East Asia and the Indian sub-continent and lastly the Hispanics, these is the population that are said to be bi-racial. (Jessica and Claudette, 2002)In the city I find that there are more people from different origins who do no t look like my ethnic group and the majority of them are the African Americans who I find to be people originating from the native Sub-Saharan Africa, who were captives that were enslaved within the boundaries of the United States although some of them originated from the voluntary African Immigrants from Africa. Whereby, in the year 1860, 3.5 million Africans were enslaved in the Southern part of the United States while 500,000 lived free across the United States. (Jessica and Claudette, 2002)How Are The Caucasian Americans Different From The African American?According to research I therefore state that in areas resided by the Caucasian American population is highly developed, taking an example of Western Massachusetts where the Asian Americans are said to be well represented in several professional sectors through which they are said to be earning higher wages especially in the sectors that involve business and technology even though they are poorly represented in the higher manag ement levels. Under this I find that in the year 2002 the businesses for this ethnic group had recorded a number of over 1.1 million businesses where they employed more than 2million workers where they had revenue of above $326 billion.Leadership in My CommunityI find that inequality exist within the ethnic groups in my community, whereby according to a survey done I indicate that disparities exist among the ethnic groups under which it is said that this inequality is practiced where, higher incomes whites and Asians are discriminated from the Blacks the Native Americans.   I therefore say that in my community many leaders come from the rich who take the prerogative to solve problems in the city, solutions put forward by the rich have not worked at all, but have made much harsher the Caucasian American conditions for living where the problem of us the Caucasians get neglected, causing the inter-depended equations to get ever more lopsided and we are back to where we started from i n our normal problems, this shows that there are no solutions that work for the poor and that if there were, communities like mine would already be using them. (Lupton & Power 2002)Under leadership we find this racial discrimination has led to the following effects on the gender sensitivity in my community: Economic development under this, I find that women are said to be disadvantaged by the segregation in the distribution of income and consumption within the Western Massachusetts where the share of the national income shows that there is inequality between women and men in the society, where women are said to have a significantly lower share of national income than men in my city.Personal insecurity the racial discrimination is said to lead to gender segregation among the various ethnic groups in my community thus leading to the women to be at a risk from violence in Western Massachusetts, whereby practices such as the traditional believes where women are regarded as burdens rathe r than assets this is normally practiced in Western MassachusettsMedia Representation of Racism in Western MassachusettsThe need for dependency makes the people in my community to be looking upon the media to be given information about the events taking place and the products present in the market globally, so they have to tolerate the messages by the media so as they get the information about a particular event taking place. In this case we find that the people read, listen and interpret the message depending on their socio-economic class, gender, age, education and their ethnic backgrounds, in this manner we find that they are influenced by the media to carry out a particular action or even to copy the concepts of life shown in the message that is put across to them through advertisements. (Couldry and Curran, 2003)  Under this, I have found out that there is always some disinformation about my ethnic group whereby this practice is not only practiced by the business owners, but it is also used by various political leaders and the government, who influence the media organizations to disseminate certain information that is meant to undermine the Caucasian American community and their leaders in the government and through this, I find that many people are led to take an action depending on the message given to them by the media who are surely, aware that the information included in the advertisement is not true. (Couldry and Curran, 2003)Racial Discrimination in Western Massachusetts SchoolsThe term racial discrimination creates a distinction between one group of people from another, this is normally based on the skin colour, facial features and the hair texture, it normally vary depending on the culture, and social economic factors in my community   According to the secondary research that I conducted, I find that the this area is highly affected by racism in many sectors including schools where racism is practiced through   the separation of students by their colour; I find that many students who attend sub-urban schools are white, since the sub-urban schools are meant for those individuals who are claimed to be belonging to a higher social class this is because the schools are claimed to be of a higher quality compared to the other schools that are attended by the Caucasian   children. (Darnell, James and Downey, 1998)Effects of Racial Segregation in SchoolsI found out that, teachers in many schools are said to be practicing discipline on students depending on the race, gender and socio-economic factors, though many people including teachers, argue that the discipline and policy practices in schools are balanced and objective, there are still main causes that lead to an increase in the number of students of colour being send out of school, there are various causes of racial inequality in discipline implementation in many public schools in my community and   these include;Cultural Insensitivity And Misunderstanding; I find tha t this has been said to be the major factor leading to crisis in discipline systems both in students and the teaching staff that is believed to be leading to the distinction between racial and ethnic groups among students.Due to the growing urban population in my community, many suburban schools are growing, thus increasing the racial and language differences On contrary, the number of teachers decreases as a result of color and social differences in which I find that   many school Administrators employ teachers depending on the number of the colour of the students, this has probably led to a cultural variance through which a number of teachers lack knowledge with the cultural values, and belief systems of the particular students. Therefore due to lack of the teachers’ familiarity with the students’ cultural perspectives the teacher is not able to understand the behaviour of a particular student. (Darnell, James and Downey, 1998)Psychological Insinuation racial discr imination is said to be having psychological implication on various children in the society since the children are forced to participate in a particular culture at school which needs them to alter to their home cultures through this the students face a variety of conflicts giving rise to a psychological and identity problem.Socio-Economic Factors; this is normally experienced in many schools creating differences among the members in the learning institution. For example in a situation where we find a teacher living in a middle social class that has a uniform way of living and a lower income student living in an economically troubled society, this differences between the teacher and the student is said to complicate the relationship between the two groups. (Karl and Linda 1997)Alienation this normally occurs in children due to the assimilation policies that are imposed in schools which are normally meant to break the conversion of culture and language from an older generation to a yo unger generation this leads to the alienating of the native children from their society older to younger stimulating the identity crisis within their societies. This alienation can lead social isolation that might also lead to depression through stress anger and fatigue which normally happen to detract the student from performing in schools.I therefore argue that, racial discrimination in Western Massachusetts   schools has a diversified effects on the students which normally differ with the presence of many factors including those of self attitudes and the cultural and socio-economic backgrounds this factors target the performance of the students whereby a negative impact is brought that is when a school administration fails to address the needs of its students this may be done when the school administers in formulating its curricula that include the exclusion of minority cultures and languages which proves to lack relevance to the students thus making the students to loose inter est whereby they fail to attend school and some of them dropping out of schools due to the boredom caused by the school curricula this course may also lead to a low literacy rate among the members of the society.RecommendationI therefore conclude that, in most cases lack of motivation leads to, absenteeism, poor performance, lack of involvement in activities, and dropout cases in schools. Most students are said to be undergoing various challenges while at school, these problems may include: fear of failure, lack of academic success, social pressures, lack of confidence in themselves, misplacement of papers and books, frequent absenteeism, lack of motivation and quietness at school as a result of racial discrimination. I recommend teachers in Western Massachusetts to focus on the students’ problems culturally, linguistically and socially and at the same time, they should encourage the students to choose subjects that are of interest to them.The government plays a role of ensur ing that commitments to equal rights and opportunities are upheld and delivered, by setting an enabling environment for gender and racial equality at the country level and in the Western Massachusetts community through the formulation and implementation of conferences and international conformities. Therefore, I recommend that the governments should empower the poor Caucasian American community by improving the internal governance structures, finance management systems, skills knowledge and abilities. Promote linkages, learning and dialogue between the poor and support the formation of umbrella groups that can effectively negotiate member interests with outside activists.ReferenceCouldry N. and Curran, J. (2003) – Contesting Media Power, Alternative media in aNetworked world, Lanham & Oxford, Rowman & LittlefieldDarnell A. & Downey D. (1998):-Assessing the OppositionalCulture Explanation for Racial/Ethnic Differences in School Performance American Sociological Review 63: 536- 553.Jessica S. and Claudette E (2002)   The Asian Population: 2000. Census Bureau publication, c2kbr01-16Karl, A. and Linda, N. (1997): Children, Schools, and Inequality: Boulder, Co- WestviewLupton, R & Power A. (2002). â€Å"Social Exclusion and Neighbourhoods In UnderstandingSocial Exclusion† Hills J, Le Grand J. & Piachaud D. Edn pp. 118- 140. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

You Pick Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

You Pick - Research Paper Example 33). The outcome has been increased injuries in the workplace. Health problems among the employees have also increased. When it comes to workplace safety, the subjects in the topic are the employees. They have the duty of preventing any work-related injuries. The employees also need to check after one another in their line of duty. According to the law, there are certain rights concerning workplace health and safety that all the employees in organizations across the United States are expected to enjoy (Bianchini et al. 25). For instance, we have the right to know, right to refuse, and right to participate. A lot of research shows that employees are not much considerate of these rights. This is because they are not well informed on the benefits that a safe workplace will bring to themselves, their bosses, their organizations, and the society as a whole when they are working in a safe environment (Levine, Michael and Matthew 34; Stark 33). Some scholars have been concerned with a cost-benefit analysis of investing in workplace safety (Campbell et al. 45; Bradley et al. 42; Hogan & Jeff 37). Although many of the studies that have been carried out have showed that the benefits are more than the cost of investment, only a few studies have been carried out to find out the specific benefits of a safe workplace (Bianchini et al. 56). The employers are also not aware of the benefits because some of them tend to believe that when they invest much in the employees they will reduce their profitability. Therefore, the issue has being handled with many misunderstandings. In modern organizations, employees are being recognized as the most crucial resource in the organization. The concept of human resource management has gained much significance in organizations across America (Levine, Michael and Matthew 47). However, some of the human resource managers have been concerned with the role employees can play in

Why did the colonists want independence from England Essay

Why did the colonists want independence from England - Essay Example Another reason for independence is that the colonists did not view themselves as British. They considered themselves as Americans since they had lived in America all their life. England also kept a close eye on them on every move. They were kept under watch like children and they did not like it. England also ignored their attempts to address their grievances. They ruled them the way they wanted and not in collaboration. The religious issues between the British and colonialists also caused differences and brought thoughts of independence.Politically, the colonists wanted representation in the government, which the British did not allow. Due to lack of representation, they felt oppressed by the rules passed by the government. The colonists wanted a government formed and governed by themselves (Hyser and Arndt 36). They wanted to rule themselves and form their own rules and laws. They also wanted to prove to France that they could win the war and they were ready to help them. Forming a n alliance with French government also gave them hope for victory and they thought it better to fight for independence.Economically, England was imposing high taxes on the colonists, which they did not like. In addition to this, England did not allow them to trade with other countries (Hyser and Arndt 88). They were only confined to trade with England on all the goods they wanted to trade which they did not want. These reasons made them crave for independence, which they got through revolting and fighting.

Entry of Mandarin Oriental the Russia Hotel Market Essay

Entry of Mandarin Oriental the Russia Hotel Market - Essay Example Synopsis This report begins by looking at the international hotel market with a historical and expansion outlook. It introduces the hotel in focus, i.e. the Mandarin Oriental hotels and looks at the various successes it has been through in its past and present operations. The Russian market is also further explored for a better position to relay the proposed entry of the hotel into the country’s market. The report then embarks on an analysis of the hotel by use of the eclectic theory and further uses the competitive matrix to propose a way forward to the hotel chain. Table of Contents The International Hotel Market†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.5 The Eclectic Theory†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...6 Ownership Advantages†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦7 Locational Advantage†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 Internalization†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.10 Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦11 Conclusion†¦Ã ¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦12 Recommendation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.13 Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦14 Appendix†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 16 The International Hotel Market Hotels have historically f lourished because they provide the very basic necessities that are needed by people, i.e. food and shelter. With the dawn of the civilized nations, there has been an increased need for travel and leisure, and hence the requirement for somewhere to get some rest or simply accommodated (Lockyer, 2007). This need coupled with the effects of globalization and the information and technology revolution has further enhanced the rise of international hotel chains that are standardized to provide the environment of ‘a home away from home’ (Dunning and Gray, 2003). The international hotel industry has been categorized in the group of the service industry because it provides an intangible service of accommodation, even though sometimes the service may mean provision of material commodities. This paper looks at a popular international hotel chain, Mandarin Oriental, and examines how it can easily venture into the Russian hotel market. Mandarin Oriental is a popular hotel group foun ded in 1963 from an initial ownership of Mandarin in the Chinese city of Hong Kong.  Currently, it has a total of 11,000 bedrooms and additionally has restaurants, drinks spaces, luxury leisure clubs and ample onsite parking spaces. The hotel chain has a total of 44 hotels in different locations around the world that sum up to massive 28-country coverage. It offers a wide range of services to its clients, which are of a high standard. All these massive investments have been achieved all the years through rapid acquisition strategies of purchasing world class hotel enterprises (Mandarin Orientals, 2012). Against the backdrop of this

Budhist ethics and victimized children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Budhist ethics and victimized children - Essay Example Right thinking, religious and social citizenry have provided relief. Nevertheless, the end to the sufferings of these innocent victims still seems a distant dream. (Help for Victimized Children) The Buddhist ethics highlights the eightfold path that applies to the normal citizens, perpetrators of sufferings on the victimized children, and the victims themselves. The Buddhist ethics provides gripping insights to awaken concern and care, penitence to the perpetrators and solace to the victims. The jungle law of ‘Might is right† has predators and preys following it with their own interpretations of attack or escape. The carnivores kill to satisfy their hunger. However, the perpetrators of crime on children do so to satisfy their greed and lust. Greed is like a bottomless pit and it ends in tragic misery. Buddhist ethics exposes the debilitating consequence and futility of greed as also other fleshly desires. According to the second truth of Buddhist ethics, all sufferings are the results of tanha (cravings). The handling or mishandling of tanha produces fruitful results or sufferings, depending on the process. Tanha is not restricted to criminal actions alone. Tanha in all forms lead to sufferings, according to Buddhist ethics. The tanha for power and good life also leads to suffering. (Michael C. Brannigan) It is difficult to interpret this concept to victimized children because it is practically inconceivable and unreasonable to explain a horrified child why he or she must not crave for solace or good life. The Buddhist concept of anatman (no self, soullessness) provides the eightfold path to freedom from sufferings. This eightfold path of right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration is instrumental in a society eager to alleviate the sufferings of victimized children. The

Why do different theories of the firm exist Essay - 1

Why do different theories of the firm exist - Essay Example It is also not easy to adopt all the theories but it is necessary to learn about all the theories. As it helps in making a firm progressive. Organizational analysis is relatively new among the sciences as a field of study, coming out of the latter years of the 19th century as industrialization became more technological (Pheby, 2000). Originators of organizational management, among them Taylor, Weber and Mayo, believed there was one best way to manage an organization, and all recommended single, universal solutions to management problems, though they did not agree on what the solutions should be (Buchanan, 1997). Organizations were considered to be the setting in which work was carried out, and were not considered to have self-interest of their own. It was in the 1920's when Mary Follett wrote about the "law of the situation", that the notion of organizations taking direction from outside themselves began to take root. In her way of thinking, it is the situation that an organization exists in that dictates the orders of what needs to be done (Buchanan, 1997). Further development of these concepts by thinkers such as Woodw ard, Thompson and Perrow over the next few decades, lead the way for supporters of the contingency approach. That an organizations' structure and management was effected by, and actually contingent upon, factors other than the whim of the owner, and that there clearly was no one best way to be a successful organization, contributed to the development of this new field of study (Buchanan, 1997). The novel concept that organizations interact with their environment and with each other, as social units within and without, sparked interest in the field that has become known as organizational sociology, and led to a broadening and a deepening of theory in the field (Pheby, 2000).. Resource Dependency Theory The key concept of the resource dependency perspective is that organizations are not self-sufficient. Instead, an organization's activities and outcomes are accounted for by the context in which the organization is embedded (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1970.)Dependence is determined by three factors (Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978): the importance of the resource, the degree of discretion others have over allocation and use of the resource, and the concentration of the resource. Without it the organization cannot operate and will cease to exist.. This is in keeping with resource dependency theory as it predicts that organizations will seek to reduce their dependence by expanding into other domains, thereby decreasing their reliance on any single exchange partner (Davis & Powell, 1992).In order to coordinate the actions of the members of the network and the Foundation toward this goal, linkages have been used. These have especially taken the shape of interlocks among board members and shared social norms. Such linkages and interlocks, as described by

Analyze the Capital Cycle (healthcare related) Assignment

Analyze the Capital Cycle (healthcare related) - Assignment Example There are two components of a capital structure. The first comprises of strategic planning and implementation, while the second comprises of the development of supporting infrastructure which include financial planning, capital structure and capital allocation. The importance of a financial plan to an organization is that it places the organization in financial equilibrium position, which defines its organizational capabilities. The financial infrastructure plays an important role in giving integrity and momentum to the capital cycle. Capital structure on its part looks at the questions relating to the financing of the organization, which is best described as a combination of debt and equity that seeks to finance the strategic plan. Capital allocation should be done in consideration with the best practices that relate to financial objectives and policies, review of the project and the approval of the capital expenditures of the organization. ... Poplin (2011) observes that capital capacity has significantly reduced the hospital capacity, and defined the amount of capital available to the organization for funding both the routine capital requirements and the strategic plan of moving forward. Feasibility and impact of improved operating performance shows that organizations geographically located in markets that do not expect to experience organic growth have difficulties in closing the gap between projected sources and the application of finances over that time horizon. Strategic position and viability of strategic plans cautions executives to look closely at the strategic plans in line with the current financial plan. Some strategies may have to be extended to a later date while others may require some urgency in implementation. According to Coss (2009), labour efficiency in a healthcare institution is an important factor in the capital cycle. However, it is difficult to access individual worker’s productivity of the o rganization. In case it has to be done, a desired understanding of what defines a desired output is put into consideration. Healthcare investments that are aimed at improving the efficiency are increasing being considered by organizations. The various processes that are put into more focus include the workflow analysis, workplace architecture, product design, and information technology. The major difference is vested on the persons involved in the purchase of equipment and the actual users of the equipment. Different sets of purchasing and marketing motivators affect the purchasing decisions of high ranking decision making officials in a different way than those who regularly put the equipment to

The use of practical resources for supporting learning within Essay

The use of practical resources for supporting learning within Mathematics - Essay Example It could help those students that have special needs, like those who have difficulties with the other resources (such as having a hard time in seeing the board due to eyesight problems). It could also help in the development of understanding number and mental calculation for as long as the correct type of resource has been used (Resources to Support Teaching and Learning Mathematics, n.d.). To support develop and learning, the use of primary resources is very important. Recent studies show that the provision of resources helped kinaesthetic learners in making sure that they learn best through movement and manipulation (Education Review Office New Zealand, 2007). Thus, so much attention has been given to such studies who aim to look into the purposes of resources in supporting learning in various subjects such as mathematics. Aside from aiding the learning of students who learn best through manipulation and movement, resources also have different purpose. Firstly, resources provide a visual image. A visual image allows mathematical concepts to be seen and understood clearly by students. As this paper focuses on primary school students, this is vital in explaining to them the different concepts in mathematics together with the different mathematical operations. Secondly, resources could help in supporting a calculation. Using practical sources in supporting calculation c ould help learners follow the process of calculating something (Tanner and Jones, 2000). At the same time, it will guide them through every stage that you have been through, making it easier for him or her to perform the same calculation. This is also necessary in teaching primary school students as they are just beginning to learn the different processes in performing the different mathematical operations. The teacher could make use of number lines in showing how calculations could be broken down in different steps, and that each ‘jump’

Representation of Men and Women in Advertisement Essay

Representation of Men and Women in Advertisement - Essay Example The accent is made on appearance which is defined as the key to success in private and social life. Before you even open any glossy magazine you realize that to appear on the cover of it you need to fit all these criteria. The models in the advertisements of fashion magazines are intentionally unrealistic and unreachable: they seem to be weightless, ephemeral creatures.   Printed media has made it clear that thinness is almost equal to sexual attractiveness and all the women who fall out of the category S and sometimes even XS size do not have any chances to count on the attention of men. The gap between ultra-thin models and normal sizes of ordinary women is so huge that regularly comparison becomes unavoidable.  Ã‚   The most serious is the fact that advertising industry has made it a norm which means that it has managed to impose those unrealistic standards on all women of all classes and all nationalities. Fashion magazines models and Hollywood stars advertising this or that product whose beauty is far from natural- with multiple plastic surgeries and crowds of stylists and hairdressers tell common women how they must look, what they must wear, how they must smell.   For teenage and college girls as well as for adult women being exposed to such an extreme variant of beauty is very stressful. The only company that tried to overcome these stereotypes was Dove who invited women of normal size to advertise their products.

Compare and contrast Essay Example for Free

Compare and contrast Essay People are always looking forward to their vacation period. There are many options where to choose. I think that the three most common places people choose for taking a vacation are the beach, mountain, and an amusement park. All three places offer a variety of fun activities. The beach offers activities that the mountain or amusement park cannot offer and vice versa. All three places are totally different. The purpose of this essay is to contrast the climate, types of activities and locations of beaches, mountains, and amusement parks. First of all, the three aspects I’m going to discuss about the mountains are climate, types of activities and location. Climate is always important in order to enjoy vacations. If a person dislikes cold weather, he or she might have a hard time in the mountains. The cold climate in the mountains is the first barrier to enjoying them. As I said before, many people don’t enjoy cold temperatures. The climate and the temperature of these zones are what determine the types of activities they offer. Snowboarding, mountain climbing, mountain biking, hiking, and skiing are some of the activities people can enjoy when going to the mountains. There are many regions that have mountains where people can go and have a great vacation. Canada is a country located in North America and full of mountain vacation sites. Inside Canada there are many interesting places where people can go and have fun. Second of all, the three aspects I’m going to discuss about the beach are climate, types of activities and location. Warm climate is one of the most important features that the beach has. Sun and fun are two words that describe the beach. The temperature in those places is always hot. The sea and the warm climate determine the activities that are available at the beach. People can swim, play volleyball, play soccer, and ride water bikes. In most of the coastal sites, there are discos and restaurants where people can dance or party throughout the night. Mexico offers many amazing coastal sites to visit. Acapulco and Cancun are two of the most beautiful and famous beaches in the world. Last but not the least, the three aspects I’m going to discuss about amusement parks are climate, types of activities and location. The climate for an amusement park is almost always hot. If a person doesn’t want to go home with sun burns then the amusement park would not be the place for them. Finally, it doesn’t matter what place a person decides to choose. The fun is 100% guaranteed. People often choose one of these three options to spend their vacations. Depending on what the person likes is what he or she will choose. I like amusement parks better than the mountains or the beach, but sometimes it is better to take a risk and try different places to enjoy.

Source Of Errors In Learning English Language Essay

Source Of Errors In Learning English Language Essay Introduction Errors are integral part of language acquisition. The phenomenon of error has long interested SLA researchers. In a traditional second language teaching situation, they are regarded as the linguistic phenomena deviant from the language rules and standard usages, reflecting learners deficiency in language competence and acquisition device. Many teachers simply correct individual errors as they occur, with little attempt to see patterns of errors or to seek causes in anything other than learner ignorance. Presently, however, with the development of linguistics, applied linguists, psychology and other relevant subjects, peoples attitude toward errors changed greatly. Instead of being problem to be overcome or evils to be eradicated, errors are believed to be evidence of the learners stages in their target language (TL) development. It is through analyzing learner errors that errors are elevated from the statue of undesirability to that of a guide to the inner working of the language lea rning process (Ellis, 1985,p 53) In the field of SLA, there have been three influential approaches to errors with a general movement from approaches emphasizing the product, the error itself, to approaches focusing on the underlying process under which the errors are made. The analysis of error sources has been regarded as a central aspect in the study of learner errors. Researchers believe that the clearer the understanding of the sources of learners errors, the better second language teachers will be able to detect the process of L2 learning. Error Making errors is the most natural thing in the world and it is evidently attached to the human beings. But, how do we define error? There are different definitions of the word as Ellis explains learners make errors in both comprehension and production, the first being rather scantly investigated. All learners make errors which have a different name according to the group committing the error. Childrens errors have been seen as transitional forms, the native speakers ones are called slips of the tongue and the second language errors are considered unwanted forms (George 1972). We use the term error to refer to a systematic deviation from a selected norm or set of norms. According to Lennon (1991) an error is a linguistic form or combination of forms which in the same context and under similar conditions of production would, in all likelihood, not be produced by the speakers native speakers counterparts. On one hand, it was considered to be a sign of inadequacy of the teaching techniques, something negative which must be avoided, and on the other hand it was seen as a natural result of the fact that since by nature we cant avoid making errors, we should accept the reality and try to deal with them. The error-as-progress conception is based on the Chomskys idea that a child generates language through innate universal structures. So, using this symbolic code, one can have access to different pieces of knowledge not as something mechanically learned but as mentally constructed through try and error. The idea is now that the second language learners form hypotheses about the rules to be formed in the target language and then test them out against input data and modify them accordingly. There is an approach which concerns error as being the result of social-cognitive interaction. This means that the error implicitly carries a social norm as well as cognitive process. The error also carries a social and cultural component which makes it different in different societies. Cultural differences in the error Previous research has shown that cultural differences exist in the susceptibility of making fundamental attribution error: people from individualistic cultures are prone to the error while people from collectivistic cultures commit less of it (Miller, 1984). It has been found that there is a differential attention to social factors between independent peoples and interdependent peoples in both social and nonsocial contexts: Masuda and his colleagues (2004) in their cartoon figure presentation experiment showed that Japaneses judgments on the target characters facial expression are more influenced by surrounding faces than those of the Americans; whereas Masuda and Nisbett (2001) concluded from their underwater scenes animated cartoon experiment that Americans are also more likely than Japanese participants to mark references to focal objects (i.e. fish) instead of contexts (i.e. rocks and plants). These discrepancies in the salience of different factors to people from different cultu res suggest that Asians tend to attribute behavior to situation while Westerners attribute the same behavior to the actor. Consistently, Morris Peng (1994) found from their fish behavior attribution experiment that more American than Chinese participants perceive the behavior (e.g. an individual fish swimming in front of a group of fish) as internally rather than externally caused. One explanation for this difference in attribution lies in the way people of different cultural orientation perceive themselves in the environment. Particularly, Markus and Kitayama (1991) mentioned how (individualistic) Westerners tend to see themselves as independent agents and therefore prone themselves to individual objects rather than contextual details. in the second language teaching/ learning process the error has always been regarded as one of the most generally known approaches concerning the error throughout human history is to consider it a negative effect or result, even worth to be punished. According to Corder (1967): A learners errors then, provide evidence of the system of the language that he is using. They are significant in three different ways: first to the teacher, in that they tell him is he undertakes a systematic analysis, how far towards the goal the learner has progressed. Second, they provide the researchers with evidence of how language is learned or acquired. Third they are indispensible to the learner himself because he can regard the making of errors as a device used in order to learn. The sources of error might be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, epistemic or residing in the discourse structures. Richards(1971),when trying to identify the causes of competence errors he came up with three types of errors: interference errors, which reflect the use of elements from one language to the other, intralingual errors, subdivided into errors due to overgeneralization, or to ignorance of rules restriction, which is incomplete application of the rules, or finally due to the false concept hypothesis, which demonstrate the general characteristics of rule learning and third developmental errors when the learner builds hypothesis about the target language based on limited experience. Assuming a term hierarchy of errors, Burt and Kiparasky (1974) suggest that there is a difference between global and local errors. They say: Global mistakes are those that violate rules involving the overall structure of a sentence, the relations among constituent clauses, or, in a simple sentence, the relations among major constituents. Local mistakes cause trouble in a particular constituent, or in clause of a complex sentence. They claim that global errors are more serious and rank higher in the error hierarchy than local ones, and they should be corrected prior to all others in language classrooms. Accordingly, errors in tense and aspect are regarded as local errors. They may be minor errors, for they may not cause grave breakdowns in communication. However, they are extremely common mistakes among second language learners of English and very much worth investigating since tense and aspect represent one of the most essential parts of English grammar. Corder (1967) goes a step further to propose different terminologies for these two kinds of errors and stresses that we must make a clear distinction between mistakes and errors; the former refers to non-systematic performance errors of chance circumstances, whereas the latter can be defined as the systematic errors of the learner from which we are able to reconstruct his knowledge of the language to date. In the following discussion, the analysis focuses on competence errors: There are two major approaches to analyzing errors committed by a target language learner. Contrastive Analysis (CA), Error Analysis (EA). Theoretical base of CA lies in Behaviorist Learning Theory; while the EA is closely related with the emergence of Interlanguage Theory (Ellis, 2005) Behaviorist learning theory accounts of errors: The behaviorist learning theory illustrates the TL learning is a mechanical process of habit formation. Habits entail over-learning, which ensures that learning of new habits as a result of proactive inhibition. Thus, the challenge facing the L2 learner is to overcome the interference of L1 habits. Basing on the habit formation, contrastive analysis sought to identify the features of the L2 that differed from those of the L1 so that learners could be helped to form the new habits of the L2 by practicing them intensively. Most errors made by L2 learners were the result of differences between L1 and L2 structure. (Martin 1996) Interference, the CA insists, is the result of unfamiliarity with the rules of a TL and psychological causes, such as inadequate learning (Swan, 2001). Transfer can be positive or negative: linguistic features of the L1 that are similar to those of the TL will facilitate learning (positive transfer); those aspects of the L1 that are different to the TL grammatical and phonological system will hinder SLA and cause the learner to make numerous production errors(negative transfer). Thus difference between the L1 and L2 create learning difficulty which results in errors, while the similarities between them facilitate rapid and easy learning (Ellis, 1985 cited Corder). According to behaviorist learning theory, both types of transfer are the outcome of automatic and subconscious use of old habits in new learning situations (Dulay, Burt Krashen) Rod Ellis (1985) assesses, errors, according to the theory, were the result of non-learning, rather than wrong learning. By comparing the L1 with TL, differences could be identified and used to predict areas of potential errors. The idea of the error as an effect to be avoided has been especially supported by behaviorism, being considered an obstacle to language learning. To them error has been a symptom of ineffective teaching or as evidence of failure and they believed that when they occur they are to be remedied by provision of correct forms; that is to say, use of intensive drilling and over-teaching. It was also believed that interference takes place whenever there is a difference between native mother tongue and the target language. A hypothesis based on Lados suggestion in linguistic across cultures where he states in comparison between native and foreign language lies the key to ease all difficulties in foreign language learning (Lado, 1957) 2. Interlanguage (IL) theory accounts of errors (i) Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage to refer to the systematic knowledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: To refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition To refer to the system that is observed at a single stage of development To refer to particular L1, L2 combinations. Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are approximate system and transitional competence. (ii) Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second and foreign language learners who are in the process of learning a language, whose errors are caused by several different processes. These include: Borrowing patterns from the mother tongue. Extending patterns from the target language Expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known from Richards, Jack et al (1992). (iii)Interlanguage refers to the separateness of a second language learners system, a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native and target language. Interlanguage is neither the system of target language nor the system of the native language, but instead falls between the two; it is a system based upon the best attempt of learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. By gradual process of trial and error and hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to the system used by native speakers of the language. (iv)Rod Ellis (2005, 54) views Error Analysis as being based on emergence of IL theory, that is known to be used to explain effectively the errors committed in SLA processes. Slinker (1972) tried to find a way to explain the errors that some students make, have nothing to do with their foreign language; for example a Spanish speaker, an Arabic speaker and a Japanese speaker might all make the same mistake in English which was not related to their respective languages. According to Slinker, L2 learners go through a process of making and testing hypotheses about the target language. They begin with knowledge about language in general, gained from their native language, and move toward the target language. Bit by bit, they readjust their mental model of the new language, improving their communicative competency in that language. Successful hypotheses become mental constructions that correspond to the rules of the new language. Brown(1993) viewed ,truly successful students make the journ ey to a high level of competency in the target language, while less successful students become fossilized somewhere along the IL continuum. For around 35 years Selinker has viewed learners errors as evidence of positive efforts by the learner to learn a new language. This view of language learning allowed for the possibilities of learners making deliberate attempts to control their own learning and, along with theories of cognitive processes in language learning. Errors are indispensable to learners since the making of errors can be regarded as a device the learner uses in order to learn. A modern definition of language transfer is provided by Slinker (1992): language transfer is best thought of as a cover term for a whole class of behaviors, processes and constraints, each of which has to do with CLI (Cross Linguistic Influence), the influence and use of prior linguistic knowledge, usually but exclusively native language knowledge. Selinker (1992) pointed two highly significant con tributions that Corder made: that the errors of a learner, whether adult or child, are not random, but are in fact systematic and are not negative or interfering in any way with learning a TL but are, on the contrary, a necessary positive factor, indicative of testing hypothesis. In 1994 Gass and Slinker defined errors as red flags that provide evidence of the learners knowledge of the second language. The learners developing knowledge of second language may have characteristics of the learners native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. Interlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language.L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system. Interlanguage Is systematic, because the learner selects the rul es systematically, learners bases plans on the rule system, in the same way as the native speaker bases on the internalized knowledge of L1 system. (iv)One of the crucial contributions of IL was its underlying assumption that the learners knowledge is integrated and systematically reorganized with previous knowledge of the native language. By a gradual process of trial-and-error or hypothesis testing, learners slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer approximations to the system used by the native speaker of the language. The characteristics of IL are described by many researchers as follows: Permeable, in the sense that rules that constitute the learners knowledge at any one stage are not fixed, but are open to amendment(Ellis1985:50) Dynamic, in the sense that L2 learner slowly revises their variable interim systems to accommodate new hypothesis about the TL system. Systematic, in that L2 learners IL is rule-governed, that is, the learner bases his performance plans on his existing rule system much the same way as the native speaker bases his plans on his internalized knowledge of the L1 system. The variable shape of interlanguage The concept of interlanguage has had a major impact on the field of second language acquisition, studies on interlanguage focus on the linguistic and psychological aspects of second language acquisition research. I will first outline how the interlanguage assumption developed .since the interlanguage concept is not only important for the development of the students grammar system; I will then explore how it applies to other components of language. I will also focus on the consequences of the concept for the teacher and his work in the classroom. Before the 1960s language was not considered to be a mental phenomenon. Like other forms of human behavior language is learnt by processes of habit formation. A child learns his mother tongue by imitating the sounds and patterns he hears around him. By approval or disapproval, adults reinforce the childs attempts and lead the efforts to the correct forms. Under the influence of cognitive linguists this explanation of first language acquisitio n was criticized. Language cant be verbal behavior only since children are able to produce an infinite number of utterances that have never heard before. This creativity is only possible because a child develops a system of rules. A large number of studies have shown that children actually do construct their own rule system, which develops gradually until it corresponds to the system of the adults. There is also evidence that they pass through similar stages acquiring grammatical rules. Through the influence of cognitive linguists and first language acquisition research the notion developed that second language learners, too, could be viewed as actively constructing rules from the data they encounter and that they gradually adapt these rules in the direction of the target language. However wrong and inappropriate learners own language system, they are grammatical in their own terms, since they are a product of the learners own language system. This system gradually develops toward t he rule-system of the target language. The various shapes of the learners language competence are called interlanguage. This draws to the fact that the learners language system is neither that of his mother tongue nor that of the second language, but contains elements of both. Therefore, errors need not be seen as signs of failure only, but as evidence of the learners developing system. While the behaviorist approach led to teaching methods which use drills and consider errors as signs of failure, the concept of interlanguage liberated language teaching and paved the way for communicative teaching methods. Since errors are considered a reflection of the students temporary language system and therefore a natural part of the learning process, teachers could now use teaching activities which did not call for constant supervision of the students language. Group work and pair work became suitable means for language learning. A brief review of approaches to analyses of errors Contrastive Analysis (CA) Contrastive analysis is an approach generated from behaviorist learning theory. Through CA applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first and second languages to predict errors. The basic concept behind CA was that a structural picture of any language could be constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural picture of another language. Through a process of mapping one system onto another, similarities and differences could be identified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. (Corder , 1983). CA stresses the influence of mother tongue in learning a second language in phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactic levels. It holds that L2 would be affected by L1. Here, language is taken as a set of habits and learning as the establishment of new habits, a view sprung from behaviorism, under which langu age is essentially a system of habits. In the course of language learning, L1 learning habits will be transferred into L2 learning habits. Therefore, in the case of L1 transfer into L2, if structures in the MT have their corresponding structures in the TL and L1 habits can be successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully used in the L2, learners would transfer similar properties successfully and that would result in positive transfer. Contrastively, in the case of negative transfer or interference, certain elements of the MT have no corresponding counterparts in the TL, L1 habits would cause errors in the L2 and learners would transfer inappropriate properties of L1. CA places the environment as the predominant factor in SLA, while learners are believed to play only a passive role in accepting the impositions of the environment. We must not forget that there are numbers of errors made by language learners seem to be unrelated to the learners na tive language. According to SLA researchers non-interference errors were more pervasive in learner performance than CA were ready to recognize. Dulay and Burt (1973) studied the errors made by Spanish-speaking children learning English as an L2 and claimed that all of the learners errors had collected, 85% were developmental (non-interference), 12% were unique and only 3% were results of L1 interference. Primary tenets of CA are: Prime cause of difficulty and error in foreign language learning is interference coming from the learners native language. Difficulties are chiefly due to differences between the two languages The greater the difference s, the more acute the learning difficulties will be The results of a comparison between the two languages are needed to predict th e difficulties and errors which will occur in learning the target language What needs to be taught is discovered by comparing the languages and subtracting what is common to them. (Corder, 1981) 3. Error analysis (EA) It is defined as the study of linguistics ignorance, the investigation of what people do not know and how they attempt to cope with their ignorance, by James (2001).Error analysis was first introduced by Fries (1945) and Lado (1957) who have claimed that foreign or second language learners errors could be predicted on the basis of the differences between the learners native and second languages. They have also suggested that where the aspects of the target language are similar to those of the learners native language, learning will be easy; otherwise, it will be difficult and second language learners are expected to make errors .The field of error analysis in SLA was established in the 1970s by S. P. Corder and colleagues. A widely-available survey can be found in chapter 8 of Brown (2000). Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners first an d second languages to predict errors. Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer. A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language. This is the examination of those errors committed by students in both the spoken and written medium. Corder, who has contributed enormously to EA, writes this: The study of error is part of the investigation of the process of language learning. In this respect it resembles methodologically the study of the acquisition of the mother tongue. It provides us with a picture of the linguistic development of a learner and may give us indications as the learning process. Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not. Corder(1967) made use of Chomskys the competence versus performance distinction by associating errors with failures in competence and mistakes with failures in performance. In his view, a mistake occurs as the results of processing limitations rather than lack of competence. It signifies L2 learners failure of utilizing their knowledge of a TL rule. They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type: omissive, additive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as I angry are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be cl assified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They may be assessed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not. In the above example, I angry would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent. From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems. In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impossible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making. Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not with learner reception (listening and reading). Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable. For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned. In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage. Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching. Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology. EA emphasizes on the significance of errors in learners IL system, Brown (1994) may be, carried out directly for pedagogic purposes. Carl James (1998) viewed, EA developed out of the belief that errors indicate the learners stage of language learning and acquisition.th learner is seen as an active participant in the development of hypotheses regarding the rules of the target language just as a young child learning the first language. Errors are considered to be evidence of the learners strategy as he or she builds competence in the target language. These errors are defined as global which inhibit understanding and local which do not interfere with communication. Error analysis has been criticized as being an inefficient tool for studying the way second language learners develop their target language. It is argued that error analysis deals with the learners productive competence rather than the receptive one, and it is also an imperfect instrument for categorizing errors and explaining them. In the book Error and Interlanguage written by Pit Corder, he stated that various classifications of these error systems have been developed by error analysis researchers, three of which can be helpful for the teacher and are as follows. Pre-systematic; errors occur before the language learner has realized any system for classifying items being learned; the learner can neither correct nor explain this type of error. Systematic; errors occur after the learner has noticed a system and error consistently occurs; learner can explain but not correct the error. This classification relies on three major groups: (1) interference errors; (2) intralingual errors; (3)development errors. Interference errors are caused by the influence of the native language, in presumably those areas where the languages differ markedly. Intralingual errors originate with the structure to TL itself. The complexity of language encourages over-generalization, incomplete application of rules, and the failure to learn conditions for rule application. Development errors reflect the students attempt to make hypotheses about the language from the native language. Post-systematic; errors occur when learner is consistent in his or her recognition of systems; can explain and correct the error. The following steps are distinguished in conducting an EA: collection of a sample of learner language; identification of errors; explanation of errors; error evaluation (Ellis cited in 2005) Richards (1971) focused on the intralingual and developmental errors observed in the acquisition of English as a second language and further classified them into four categories: (i) Overgeneralization; covering instances where the learners create a deviant structure on the basis of his experience of other structure of the TL. (ii)Ignorance of the rule restriction, occurring as a result of failure to observe the restrictions or existing structures (iii) Incomplete application of rules, arising when the learners fail to fully develop a certain structure required to produce acceptable sentences (iv) False concepts hypothesized, deriving from faulty comprehension of distinctions in the TL. from the analyses of errors to the practice of error correction We know that in traditional classroom instruction is laid on accuracy, errors frequently corrected because the teacher thinks the error as a thorn in his/her flesh. Yet with the understanding of IL theory, the role of error correction has changed. Errors are considered natural products in language learning and in fact reflect the modes of learners developing system. What are the sources and causes of Errors? The following factors are identified as the source and causes of Errors Mother tongue interference Wilkins (1972) observes: When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mother tongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar-in that case we get positive transfer or facilitation- or may prove unjustified because the structure of the two languages are different- in that case we get negative transfer- or interference. Loan Words

The Reactor Design Project Engineering Essay

The Reactor Design Project Engineering Essay The project objective was to optimize three different adiabatic ammonia reactor configurations with respect to reactor performance in order to produce 800 tonnes of ammonia per day, or the molar equivalent of 0.5447 kmol s-1 of ammonia. The optimizations in reactor performance involved primarily, minimizing the catalyst volume and secondarily, maximizing the catalyst lifespan, as well as ensuring the final operating conditions were stable. Due to the absence of a cost function, the reactor could NOT be optimized with respect to cost minimization. Three different reactor types were considered, namely a single plug-flow reactor, a dual interstage cooling reactor and a dual cold-shot cooling reactor. Temperature, pressure and fraction of ammonia in the feed stream were found to have the greatest effect on the resultant catalyst volume. Using MATLAB, it was found that the minimum volumes were 9.61 m3, 3.94 m3 and 4.78 m3 for a single stage plug-flow, an interstage cooling configuration and a cold shot cooling reactor configuration respectively. The interstage cooling reactor allowed for a 59% decrease in total catalyst volume when modified from the single stage design, but required an increase in inlet feed temperature of 115K and 2 additional heat exchangers. The cold shot cooling method allowed for a 50.2% decrease in reactor volume from the single stage design, requiring a 75K increase in feed temperature. 1. Introduction 1.1. Background Ammonia synthesis (also known as the Haber process) is one of the most widely applied chemical processes in the world; in 2009, the total worldwide production of ammonia exceeded 133,000 metric tonnes 1, this is second only to the worldwide production of sulphuric acid. Most of the ammonia produced is used in the manufacture of fertilisers (such as ammonium nitrate), ammonia is also used in the manufacture of nitrogen-based polymers such as nylon. Another noteworthy use of ammonia is as the starting reagent for the manufacture of nitrogen-based explosives such as nitroglycerin. The reaction which generates ammonia is exothermic and equilibrium limited: N2 + H2 is in equilibrium with NH3 ΆHR (298K, 1atm) = -46.11 kJmol-1 [Eqn. 1] In the early 20th century, Fritz Haber discovered that in order to obtain a significant yield of ammonia, the reaction required both high pressures and low temperatures (in accordance with the van t Hoff-Le Chatelier principle). It was known that the rate at which N2 decomposed in the reaction was very slow (N2 is thermodynamically more stable than NH3); therefore a very efficient catalyst was required in order to facilitate ammonia formation. Nowadays, the catalyst used in most industrial ammonia reactors is usually a porous form of enriched iron. Catalysts are expensive, but they present a good trade off; reactors are able to produce sufficient amounts of product at lower, more manageable temperatures and pressures. 1.2. Design objective The overall objective was to design a continuous fixed bed plug-flow process to meet the companys daily ammonia production demand of 800 tonnes per day (exclusive of any ammonia in the feed). The primary design objective was to try to minimize the catalyst volume the process required in order to meet the production requirement. The design also had to be considered safe to operate and had to operate at conditions that were considered to maximize the lifespan of the catalyst; these two were considered as secondary objectives. The preliminary design of the reactor considered a single-stage adiabatic bed with a bed cross-sectional area of 2.0 m2. The final designs involved two different two-stage systems; one implementing interstage cooling and the other implementing cold-shot cooling. Reactor performance and sensitivity were analysed by observing the effects of altering specific operating and design variables. The cost function for the process was not known, therefore it is important to note that the reactor could not be optimized with respect to cost, however the design could be implemented such that the reactor performance was greatly improved. For example, minimizing the required catalyst volume (and hence minimizing the reactor volume) will reduce the construction cost of the reactor. However this may come at the expense of greater operating and maintenance costs and, in the case of two-stage systems, may result in additional construction costs (interstage cooling requires heat exchanger(s) to be built). The investigation will only allow qualitative suggestions to be made as to which specific design aspects contribute to the generation and/or reduction of costs. 1.3 Safety The reactor operating conditions should be stable; such that small disturbances will not lead to thermal runaway (which has important implications for safety). Other than that, there are no large risks involved with operating the ammonia reactor, provided that good process control is implemented by the operator. 2. Kinetic theory and types of reactor configurations 2.1. The kinetics of ammonia synthesis and its implications on reactor design Ammonia synthesis involves a single exothermic, reversible reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen. For reversible reactions, the conversion corresponding to thermodynamic equilibrium at the chosen operating conditions cannot be surpassed. Since the reaction is exothermic, the activation energy (which is only temperature dependent) of the backwards reaction is greater than that of the forward reaction. Therefore an increase in temperature causes a rise in the rate of the reverse reaction which is greater than the rise in the rate of the forward reaction thus decreasing the maximum attainable conversion but decreasing the required catalyst volume. On the other hand, operating at a lower temperature increases the maximum attainable conversion, whilst reducing the total reaction rate and increasing the required catalyst volume. With regard to pressure, the effect is the opposite; increasing the pressure causes a greater rise in the rate of the forward reaction compared the backward react ion and vice versa. Designing a reactor producing ammonia therefore requires a compromise between keeping temperatures sufficiently high such that reaction rate remains significant whilst obtaining a respectable conversion of ammonia. Similarly, the pressure should be great enough so as to maintain a significant reaction rate, but not so high as to cause the reactor to deviate from safe operation. In order to minimize catalyst volume (and meet the primary objective), it is desirable to operate at the maximum forward rate of reaction at each cross-section across the reactor; thus maximizing the average forward rate across the reactor, this allows the desired extent to be met with the minimum catalyst surface area and hence with the minimum catalyst volume. In order for this to occur, each cross-section in the reactor must be operated at the unique pressure and temperature required to achieve maximum rate for a particular extent, i.e. the reactor moves along the locus of maximum reaction rates. This is unfeasible in this investigation since there is no temperature or pressure control implemented across the reactor (the reactor is adiabatic and WSHAFT=0); and even so, maintaining specific pressures and temperatures at each point along the reactor is practically unfeasible in itself; as each point in the reactor would require its own heat exchanger and pressure control system. Therefore for exothermic reversible reactions (without heat removal), the temperature increases along the length of the reactor and the rate vs extent profile will always have a characteristic maximum because the temperature along the reactor increases due to the heat released by the reaction, causing the net production rate to increase up to a certain extent before the reverse reaction starts to become significant. As the rate of the backwards reaction tends to increase further and temperature rises, the overall reaction rate will eventually reach zero at equilibrium. 2.2. Brief description of the Plug-Flow Reactor (PFR) A plug-flow reactor is characterized by fluid flowing through one end of the reactor and out the other, whilst satisfying the assumptions of plug-flow. The assumptions state: Fluid properties and flow rate remain constant across any cross-section of the reactor. The flow is orderly, with no element overtaking or mixing with fluid ahead or behind, (i.e. the residence time is the same for all fluid elements). The above assumptions tend to hold true where there is turbulent flow (Re >105), ensuring good radial mixing, and if the ratio of reactor length to diameter of the reactor is large (ratio à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥ 50), where lateral mixing may be neglected 2. Figure 1: An illustration of a plug-flow reactor 3 2.3. Brief description of Interstage Cooling Interstage cooling, also known as intercooling, is a multiple reactor design suitable for exothermic reversible reactions. Heat exchangers are used to cool the output of each reactor before being passed on to the next reactor, allowing for a greater possible conversion to be achieved in each successive reactor. This process can be replicated for an indefinite number of reactors until the reactor temperature is too low for reactions to occur or until the decrease in catalyst volume is not worth the additional cost of construction and complexity of operation. This project considers only the case where two reactors are used. Figure 2: An illustration of a dual reactor interstage cooling system4 2.4. Brief description of Cold-shot Cooling Cold-shot cooling reactor designs are similar to that of interstage cooling, but allow for elimination of the intermediate heat exchangers by injecting cold feed directly into the outlets of each reactor. This addition cools down the outlet stream of the reactor and also has the effect of decreasing the composition and conversion of the flow into the subsequent reactor (corresponding to the path from point b to c in Figure 3 below). Figure 3: An illustration of a dual reactor cold-shot cooling system 5 The flow diagram of two cold-shot reactors illustrates the lack of heat exchangers as compared to interstage cooling, as well as the splitting of the initial feed stream by the splitting fraction alpha, ÃŽÂ ±, which is the fraction of the fresh feed used as the coolant. The extent of reaction remains constant after mixing (which can be proven by a mass balance). 3. Mathematical model Derivations of differential equations All the assumptions of plug-flow mentioned above were applied in the construction of the equations below; the reactor was also assumed to operate at steady state (there is no mass hold up due to the catalyst). All other assumptions are mentioned in the derivations. It should be noted that rNH3 is defined as (rNH3 generated rNH3 consumed) and is measured per unit of catalyst volume; hence the equations specify the volume of catalyst VC and not the reactor volume VR. 3.1. Change in catalyst volume with respect to the extent of reaction: Mass balance on ammonia: [Eqn. 2] The extent of reaction can be defined as: [Eqn. 3] Equations 2 and 3 were combined to obtain the following equation: Since , the equation above was rearranged to give the initial catalyst volume gradient: [Eqn. 4] 3.3. Change in temperature with respect to the extent of reaction: Figure 4: An illustration of the cross section of a plug-flow reactor An energy balance across an infinitesimally small cross section of the catalyst bed gave: Shaft work (W), changes in kinetic energy and changes in potential energy were neglected: The equation above was divided by the cross-sectional area of the tube, A: where Q denotes the heat transfer by conduction. In the equation below, the enthalpy change upon mixing was neglected (a perfect solution was assumed). It was also assumed that the gases in question were ideal and hence their enthalpy was independent of pressure, the energy balance then took the form: [Eqn. 5] is the standard heat of formation of compound. i denotes each species present. Recalling that for a tubular reactor, and : does not have a negative sign as rproduct is calculated as the main subject) [Eqn. 6] The heat of reaction was simplified as shown below: [Eqn. 7] Equation 7 was substituted into Equation 6 which was then substituted into Equation 5: [Eqn. 8] The chain rule was used to combine and : Since the reactor was assumed to be adiabatic, Q = 0: [Eqn. 9] 3.4. Change in pressure with respect to the extent of reaction: The chain rule was used to find using the formula for , bed cross-sectional area A and since A dl = dVC. Substituting the components of the three terms above, we get the initial pressure against extent gradient formula: [Eqn. 10] 4. Simulation theory and strategy 4.1. Main simulation objectives Regardless of the design used, these objectives are overarching and apply to all three reactor types: The first two bullet-points define what is meant by optimizing the reactor: Minimizing catalyst volume; Operating temperatures and pressures are limited by safety considerations (preventing thermal runaway), material construction and catalyst degradation conditions. These degradation conditions are specified by actual limits set by ammonia process operators in industry: these are above 823 K and above 300 bar 6; Interstage and cold-shot cooling designs are only dual reactor designs. The derivation of the required total extent for all simulations is as follows: The MATLAB coding incorporating the required data and was used to solve the differential equations described earlier in the mathematical model for the outlet temperature, pressure and catalyst volume; all the assumptions applied in the mathematical model were thus applied in the coding, unit consistency was also maintained in the programming. 4.2. Single stage simulation strategy It is clear that a plug-flow reactor can take advantage of concentration profiles present in the reactor in order to minimize the total catalyst volume. Near the desired extent, adiabatic plug-flow reactors (running exothermic reversible reactions) operate ideally somewhere between the equilibrium line, where the rate of the forward and backwards reaction are equal, and the optimum line, which is a curve connecting the maximas of all the different rate curves, also known as the locus of maximum rates. Figure 5: A graph displaying the variation of forward rate with extent It is opted to run the reactor under conditions such that the inlet rate is exactly equal to the outlet rate where the reactor exits at the desired extent of 0.5447. The rin = rout condition limits the maximum average rate by a small amount but provides a greater amount of kinetic stability in the event of a disturbance; a small increase in the inlet temperature may push the reaction closer to equilibrium whilst a small decrease in the inlet temperature will decrease the outlet rate slightly but still allow the reactor to operate in a region of higher rates. The locus of rin = rout is found between the optimum line and the equilibrium line. As shown in Figure 5, this condition also means that the region of maximum reaction rate is taken advantage of; i.e. the rate in the reactor is always greater than or equal to the inlet rate. Therefore, although the temperature increases along the reactor, the forward rate is kept as high as possible. As the extent of reaction increases across the reactor for a fixed set of inlet conditions, it is expected for the surface area of catalyst to increase; if more product is generated, more catalyst is required to facilitate this generation. There is a limit in the MATLAB coding such that the catalyst volume decreases whilst the reaction extent continues to increase; the code is such that results after this point are treated as erroneous and are not used, thus the code finds the inlet conditions needed to achieve the maximum possible extent for an adiabatic reactor. To apply the simulation strategy, a MATLAB program was created to find the inlet conditions which satisfy the rin = rout condition for a desired final extent (0.5447 in this case). A separate program was also created to vary operating and design conditions individually and examine their effect on the catalyst volume. Graphs of the locus of maximum reaction rate, locus of rin = rout rates and the equilibrium curve were constructed using the desired inlet conditions determined from the single stage simulation. 4.3. Interstage cooling simulation strategy The overall reaction follows the adiabatic operating curve (it may not necessarily be a straight line due to the pressure drop across the reactor). It was desirable for the reaction to end at the same point as in the single stage simulation (with the same final extent); where the rate at the outlet of the second reactor lies on the rin = rout line for the desired extent. It was also desirable for the rate at the exit of the first reactor to be equal to the rate at the entrance of the second reactor; so that the reactor can continue onwards from the same rate in the second reactor (and maintain the average forward reaction rate). For this code, there was no condition that the rate at the inlet of the first reactor must equal the rate at the outlet of the first reactor (and likewise for the second reactor); since it was unfeasible to make the rates equivalent at all the inlets and outlets. Instead it was specified that rate1 OUT= rate2 IN and that rate2 OUT = rate OPTIMIZED SINGLE STAGE OUT. The extent in the first reactor (and therefore in the second reactor) had to be specified for each set of results. If the extent was too high, the outlet of the first reactor would be very near equilibrium whilst if it was set too low the outlet of the first reactor would be reached before the maximum rate had been obtained; therefore a degree of overshoot past the maximum reaction rate was desirable; the program ensured that there was a degree of overshoot past the maximum reaction rate in both reactors before validating a result. The locus of maximum reaction rates (from the single stage optimization) was used to determine the feed temperature for which the rate is a maximum at the start; this temperature was roughly 790K (located graphically). Above this temperature, the region of maximum reaction rates was not utilised at all; and the maximum extent achievable (using the gradient of the operating line) at equilibrium was roughly 0.28. This specified the minimum extent of reaction in reactor 1. If the feed temperature were too low, the first reactor would perform similar to a single PFR, defeating the purpose of having two reactors. Thus a moderate extent range of 0.3 0.4 was chosen for the first reactor as it was unworkable to put an excessive production load on either reactor. In order to apply this strategy, a program was used to specify the inlet conditions to the second reactor; the program moved along the operating curve using the initial conditions obtained in the single stage reactor up to the desired extent in the first reactor. This gave the inlet rate to the second reactor as well as the flow rate, temperature and composition of this stream. Following this, the rate1 OUT = rate2 IN condition was used to acquire the inlet and outlet temperatures and pressures of the first reactor and its volume. Lastly, the inlet conditions to the second reactor and the remaining extent were used to calculate the volume of the second reactor. The combined volumes and degrees of cooling between the reactors were compared for the chosen range of extents. 4.4. Cold-shot cooling simulation strategy Figure 6: A graph displaying the variation of extent with temperature for a cold-shot system The rate identity rin=rout used to optimize the single PFR was used in the cold-shot cooling reactor design. With reference to Figure 6, optimization was achieved by ensuring that the reaction moved from points aÆ’Â  bÆ’Â  cÆ’Â  d , with the following rate identities; ra = rb and re = rd. The second reactor would operate along the path that the optimum single PFR would operate on (e Æ’Â   d). By adhering to the above conditions, there were three variables left to define, namely alpha (ÃŽÂ ±), initial feed temperature Tini and the interstage extent ÃŽÂ ¾1. Fixing alpha and Tini would automatically define ÃŽÂ ¾1 and outlet temperature of the first reactor as the rates at points a and b must be the same. This optimized the first reactor for the given inlet conditions. By constructing enthalpy and mass balances on the mixing point of the outlet from the first reactor with the cold stream, the inlet temperature into the second reactor was determined, thereby finding outlet conditions of the second reactor, should it achieve the required extent of 0.5447 kmol s-1. Finally, in order to ensure that total optimization had occurred for the specified alpha and temperature, the difference in rates at points e and d was confirmed to be as close to zero as possible. Several iterations would be required to home in on the best inlet temperature for a given extent. The temperature of the feed used for cooling, Tf, was 298K; significantly lower than the temperature of the fluid exiting the reactor. This imposed an upper limit on the split fraction ÃŽÂ ±, beyond which the feed temperature into the second reactor would be too low for reactions to operate at an acceptable rate; catalyst volume would need to be larger to counter this effect, meaning optimization would not achieved. Therefore, by varying ÃŽÂ ± for 50 equal intervals from 0.01 to 0.5, and finding the 50 corresponding Tini values that satisfied the above stated rate identities gave the optimum reactor for each value of ÃŽÂ ±. The best cold-shot reactor specification was easily deduced from the setup which had the smallest overall catalyst volume. Results and Discussion 5.1. Single Plug-flow Reactor 5.1.1. Varying the ammonia composition in the feed Figure 7: A graph displaying the effect of ammonia feed mol % change on catalyst volume The composition of ammonia in the feed was changed while keeping the molar feed rate constant. (Change ratio: 4% decrease in NH3 = 1% increase in N2 + 3% increase in H2, etc). Figure 7 shows that decreasing the ammonia fraction from the original 8 mol % (while increasing the reactant mol %) lead to a significant drop in catalyst volume required. The greater concentration of reactants favoured the forward reaction, increasing the rate of formation of ammonia, leading to a smaller catalyst volume. When the ammonia fraction was too high (à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥0.16), the initial concentration of reactants was insufficient to achieve the required extent. Also, as the partial pressure of ammonia increased in the reactor, a greater proportion of the catalysts active sites became blocked and the forward rate decreased, increasing the required catalyst volume 7. It was decided to keep the mol % of ammonia in the feed at 8% in subsequent simulations; although the lowest mol % of ammonia in the feed produces the minimum catalyst volume, it is impractical for this to occur since ammonia is normally recycled in industrial reactors 8. 5.1.2. Varying the reactor cross-sectional area Figure 8: A graph displaying the effect of cross-sectional area on catalyst volume Figure 8 shows that increasing the cross-sectional area reduced the catalyst volume, but this reduction was more significant only at the smaller area values. Increasing the area increased the number of catalyst pellets available at the reactor cross-section; therefore a greater reaction rate was initially facilitated as the volume increased. However, the inlet flow was fixed, and beyond a certain area, the flow into the reactor did not utilise the additional pellet area at the cross section; and thus the catalyst volume was less affected. The cross sectional area for the remainder of the investigation was kept at 2m2 because the increase in cross-sectional area above 2m2 does not justify the relatively minimal reduction in catalyst volume. 5.1.3. Variation of catalyst voidage Table 1: Displays catalyst volumes for different values of catalyst voidage Voidage 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 Vc at ÃŽÂ ¾ = 0.54466 (m3) 23.4642 23.4877 23.5399 23.6728 24.1043 Voidage is the ratio of the catalyst volume to the reactor volume. A larger voidage means a higher catalyst pellet density, thereby allowing a smaller catalyst volume. However, increases in voidage past 0.4 did not contribute to any further significant decrease in catalyst volume. For the purpose of subsequent simulations, the voidage was kept to the original 0.4. 5.1.4. Variation of catalyst diameter Table 2: Displays catalyst volumes for different values of catalyst diameter Catalyst Diameter 0.011 0.009 0.007 0.005 0.003 Vc at ÃŽÂ ¾ = 0.54466 (m3) 23.5881 23.6209 23.6728 23.7675 23.9954 It is seen from the data that varying catalyst diameter had a negligible effect on the catalyst volume, suggesting that although the surface area of each catalyst pellet increased, the number of catalyst pellets decreased, and thus the overall catalyst area did not change significantly. It was decided to stick to the original catalyst diameter provided. 5.1.5. Varying temperature and pressure Figure 8: A graph displaying the effect of inlet temperature on catalyst volume for different isobars As the temperature was increased, a decrease in the catalyst volume was observed. At lower pressures, the gradient of the graph (the change in VC with inlet T) was much higher and therefore inlet temperature was more effective at reducing the catalyst volume at lower pressures. This has some implications with respect to cost; if the inlet temperature is increased, there is an electricity cost associated with operating the reactor at this higher inlet temperature, but there is also a saving due to the reduction in catalyst volume. Figure 9: A graph displaying the effect of inlet pressure on catalyst volume for different isotherms As inlet pressure was increased, the catalyst volume decreased. As discussed in the theory, the increase in pressure favoured the forward reaction, thereby increasing the reaction rate per unit volume of catalyst. However, the capital costs spent on reactor materials able to withstand the high pressures have to be taken into consideration in addition to the greater maintenance cost of the catalyst bed (since a higher pressure reduces the longevity of a catalyst). 5.1.6. Results of single stage simulation Table 3: Displays the specifications and feed conditions the optimized single PFR Feed Composition Cross sectional area (m2) Catalyst Diameter (m) Voidage Extent Temperature (K) Pressure (Bar) N2 H2 NH3 In Out In Out 0.23 0.69 0.08 2 0.0007 0.4 0.5447 624.2 796.0 300 298.6 It can be observed that the pressure drop throughout the reaction was rather insignificant compared to the total pressure in the reactor. The optimization values from the single stage plug-flow reactor were essential for designing dual reactors that utilized interstage or cold-shot cooling as the second reactors were designed to follow the reaction path taken by the single stage PFR. The optimum single stage pressure of 300 bar was also the optimum pressure used for the subsequent simulations; the maximum operating pressure tolerable is 300 bar according to the catalyst degradation conditions specified in the simulation objectives. 5.2. Interstage Cooling Figure 10: A graph displaying the extents of reaction for different temperatures. The interstage path for ÃŽÂ ¾1 values of 0.3, 0.34 (optimum), and 0.4 are displayed along with the locus of maximum reaction rates, the equilibrium curve and the locus of rin = rout. Results were obtained for 10 extents between 0.3 and 0.4; these are displayed in the appendix. From the graph above, it can be seen that for all three extents; 0.3, 0.34, 0.4, the reaction in the first reactor moved past the locus of maximum rates and the locus of rIN = rOUT and then approached the equilibrium curve, thereby maximizing conversion. The outlet stream was then cooled to a point along the path taken by the volume minimizing single PFR. The graph thus shows that performance optimization occurred in the interstage cooling design as catalyst volumes in both reactors were minimized. The range of chosen extents for the first reactor, 0.3 0.4 kmol s-1, also proved to be robust, providing well performing reactors with small catalyst volumes (where all reactors had a combined catalyst volume less than half of that of the single stage reactor). Volume reached a minimum of 3.94 m3 when the extent was fixed at 0.34 kmol s-1 with an inlet feed temperature of 737.1K. 5.3. Cold-shot Cooling Table 4 Conditions and results for the optimum cold-shot system Extent Achieved Temperature (K) Catalyst volume (m3) 1st 2nd 1st 2nd In Out In Out Vr1 Vr2 0.2958 0.2489 699 795.769 717.172 796.407 1.523 3.254 (Vc 1 Vc 2 = 1st 2nd Catalyst volume respectively) Figure 11: Catalyst volume minimizing temperatures at specific alpha values During simulation of the cold-shot cooling reactor design, it was deduced that the range of ÃŽÂ ± was restricted from 0.01 to 0.38, beyond which the bulk of the reaction would occur in one of the two reactors, making the other redundant. Optimally, ÃŽÂ ± should be somewhere between the limits of the range; for ÃŽÂ ± = 0.19 and feed temperature at 699K, a minimum overall volume of 4.78 m3 was achieved. It is seen from the graph above that as ÃŽÂ ± deviates from 0.19 and tends towards 0, the first reactor behaves more like a single PFR. The same happens to the second reactor as ÃŽÂ ± tends towards the ÃŽÂ ± upper limit. Increasing the initial feed temperature causes ÃŽÂ ± to increase in order for optimization to occur, while a decrease would bring about the opposite effect. This is because a larger fraction would be required to cool the output from the first reactor to achieve optimization should the reactor operate at a higher temperature. The contrary is true; with a larger ÃŽÂ ±, the initial feed temperature cannot be too low as excessive cooling of the second fraction would occur. 6. Conclusion It can be concluded that the investigation w